What is the role of fever in infection?
T he normal body temperature for humans is 98.6°F (37.2°C), although this can vary up or down by a few degrees.
A fever is defined as a higher-than-normal body temperature, and it most often occurs when certain pathogens (a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that causes disease) invade the body.
For example, bacteria often release certain toxins when they invade the body, many of which cause an infection.
These toxins (or antigens) cause the body’s immune system to respond by releasing special proteins that regulate body temperature.
The increase in body temperature also causes a person’s metabolic rate to rise and speeds up the body’s reactions that aid in getting rid of infection.
One of these includes a fever, which seems to inhibit the growth of certain microbes.
It also stimulates the liver to hoard certain substances that bacteria seem to require, which helps to stop the microbes from growing.
What is inflammation in the human body?
Inflammation (from the Latin inflammo or “ignite”) is the body’s natural way of fighting off microbes that enter the body; it is also referred to as part of the body’s immune response. It is a positive feature, as it is the body’s attempt to protect itself against harmful stimuli and to begin healing. But it can also cause more inflammation, becoming almost self-perpetuating.
Most people are familiar with inflammation.
For example, the body responds to a bug bite, rash, or skin infection, all of which cause inflammation in the infected area.
Inflammation can be acute, meaning it starts rapidly and quickly becomes severe, such as when a person accidentally cuts a finger with a knife.
Inflammation can be chronic, meaning long-term inflammation that can last months or several years.
This type of inflammation can cause several diseases and conditions, including atherosclerosis, periodontitis, hay fever, and rheumatoid arthritis.
And although scientists know that inflammation can play a role in, for example, heart disease and possibly diabetes, it is still unknown what drives inflammation in the first place.
What is the connection between inflammation and diabetes?
There seems to be a connection between inflammation and, in particular, type 2 diabetes.
Recent studies seem to indicate that inflammation inside the body may actually play a role in the development of type 2 diabetes.
Some research indicates that fat may be the problem, especially in people who are obese and have fat around the belly.
It is thought that these fat cells produce chemicals that lead to inflammation, which some researchers believe contributes to the development of chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes.
In fact, it is known that people who have type 2 diabetes have higher levels of inflammation in their bodies, including higher cytokines, or inflammatory chemicals in the body.
It is also known that they also have elevated cytokine levels inside their fat tissues.
Thus, excess body fat probably causes chronic, low levels of inflammation in a person with type 2 diabetes, altering the insulin’s ability to do its normal task and further contributing to the disease.
This does not mean that inflammation causes type 2 diabetes, but it appears to be involved in the development of the disease.
Why is exercise good to fight inflammation and type 2 diabetes?
It is thought that physical exercise, even 30 minutes of walking a day, may not only help prevent type 2 diabetes in those who are at risk of developing the disease but may also help increase insulin sensitivity. This is because exercise releases several anti-inflammatory chemicals into the body. It also helps the body’s muscle (and other) cells increase their sensitivity to insulin and, in turn, helps reduce chronic inflammation.
Walking 30 minutes a day is a good way to help stave off the possibility of contracting type 2 diabetes.
What is the inflammatory factor (IF)?
The inflammatory factor (IF), described almost a decade ago, is a way of rating foods based on their potential ability to increase or decrease inflammation in the body.
The numbers in the range vary widely (there are no upper or lower limits), and each rating is considered to be dependent on serving size.
Most studies on the IF have shown a mixed result, and the topic is highly debated.
Some people say there is no way to control inflammation in our systems using this method, while others believe eating foods with the IF in mind will help decrease inflammation in the body.
What is an anti-inflammatory diet, and can it help a person with type 2 diabetes?
An anti-inflammatory diet is just as the phrase implies: Some foods have natural anti-inflammatory properties and attributes.
Eating such a diet does not prevent type 2 diabetes, but it does help with weight loss, a contributor to the disease for people at high risk for developing type 2 diabetes.
The foods often mentioned include fats such as omega-3 fatty acids (olive, flaxseed, and canola oils), avocados, walnuts, and most fruits and vegetables (oranges, tomatoes, leafy greens, blueberries, etc.).
Foods that can cause inflammation are those that contain trans-fatty acids, vegetable shortening, red meat (especially beef and pork), and margarine. (For more about foods and diabetes, see the chapter “Diabetes and Food.”)
DIABETES, HIV, AND AIDS
What is the difference between human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)?
The term AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) applies to the most advanced stages of HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, AIDS includes all HIV-infected people who have fewer than 200 CD4+ T cells per cubic millimeter of blood. (Healthy adults usually have CD4+ T cell counts of 1,000 or more.) The HIV definition also includes 26 clinical conditions (including many infections that occur as complications of the disease) that affect people with advanced HIV.
How is HIV diagnosed?
The only accurate way to diagnose HIV is through antibody testing. The immune system of an individual infected with HIV will begin to produce HIV antibodies to fight the infection. Although these antibodies are ineffective in destroying the HIV virus, their presence is a positive indication of the presence of HIV.
How is the HIV virus transmitted from one person to another?
HIV is transmitted via unprotected sexual contact with an infected partner or through contact with infected blood.
Over the past few decades, rigorous screening of the blood supply and heat-treating techniques for donated blood have reduced the rate of transmission via blood transfusions to a very small percentage.
However, sharing needles and/or syringes with someone who is infected is still a mode of transmission of the HIV virus.
In the past, HIV was frequently passed from a mother to her baby during pregnancy and/or birth.
Treatments are now available that reduce the chances of a mother’s passing the virus to her child to 1 percent.
HIV is not transmitted through casual contact such as kissing or hand holding. Instead, there needs to be direct contact with another person’s blood, such as through a needle or as can happen through unprotected sexual intercourse.
Why should people with diabetes and AIDS be aware of infections?
The immune system of individuals with AIDS is severely compromised and weak, so the body cannot fight off certain bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and other microbes. Because such infections can easily establish themselves, it is usually more difficult to fight off an infection for a person with HIV/AIDS who also has diabetes.
Why should a person taking metformin for diabetes, along with certain HIV medications, be aware?
According to the National Institutes of Health, people taking metformin for diabetes, plus getting certain HIV treatments, may be at higher risk of lactic acidosis (for more about lactic acidoses, see the chapter “Taking Charge of Diabetes”). They also warn that if a person has liver or kidney problems, or they binge drink or drink alcohol regularly, they are also at higher risk of lactic acidosis. As always, it is best for a person with diabetes and HIV to discuss medications, alcohol habits, and general health with their doctor.
Do HIV medications increase the risk of type 2 diabetes?
No, not all HIV medications increase the risk of type 2 diabetes, but according to the National Institutes of Health, some do.
In particular, NIH says HIV medicines in the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) and protease inhibitor (PI) drug classes may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes.
These include such drugs as didanosine (an NRTI) and indinavir (a PI) that seem to make it more difficult for the body to respond to and use insulin.
This insulin resistance causes a rise in blood glucose levels that can eventually lead to type 2 diabetes.
Thus, it is important to have blood glucose tests after starting these (and to be safe, other) HIV medications.
What should a pregnant woman with HIV be aware of in terms of gestational diabetes?
T he American Diabetes Association suggests that women who are pregnant and are being treated for HIV be screened early in their pregnancy by their doctor for gestational diabetes. This means around 24 to 28 weeks’ gestation or even earlier if the woman is taking certain HIV medications and/or if she has any other risk factors for developing diabetes.
DIABETES AND SLEEP
Are women who have difficulty sleeping at risk for type 2 diabetes?
Yes, according to a study in 2016, women who have sleeping difficulties, both in quantity and quality of sleep, may be at an increased risk for type 2 diabetes.
The study followed more than 133,000 women for ten years.
Examining the women who developed type 2 diabetes, the researchers defined difficulty sleeping as: (1) trouble falling asleep or staying asleep; (2) sleeping less than six hours a night; (3) frequent snoring; and (4) either shift work disrupting sleep or sleep apnea.
In most cases, these problems resulted in several conditions, including a higher body mass index (BMI; for more about BMI, see the chapter “Diabetes and Obesity”) that would indicate being overweight or obese, more hypertension (for more about hypertension, see the chapter “Diabetes and the Circulatory System”), less exercise, and depression.
Even without these conditions, the researchers showed, sleeping difficulties were still tied to a 22 percent increased risk for type 2 diabetes in the female participants.
And if four of the above problems were prevalent, it meant the woman had almost four times the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
In this case, the explanation for the lack of sleep may be mostly hormonal.
Sleep problems are often associated with the excess secretion of ghrelin (resulting in a boost in appetite) and cortisol (resulting in an increase in stress and insulin resistance), both of which increase the risk of type 2 diabetes.
Studies have shown that women who have trouble sleeping have an increased risk of getting type 2 diabetes. This may be because lack of sleep is the result of increased levels in the hormones ghrelin or cortisol, which are related to hunger and stress, respectively; and these, in turn, are related to diabetes risk.
What did a recent study show about A1c blood glucose levels and sleep duration?